In vivo tissue engineering devices, methods and regenerative and cellular medicine employing scaffolds made of absorbable material

ABSTRACT

Tissue engineering devices and methods employing scaffolds made of absorbable material for use in the human body for tissue genesis and regenerative and cellular medicine including breast reconstruction and cosmetic and aesthetic procedures and supplementing organ function in vivo.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/827,030, filed Mar. 23, 2020, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/918,538, filed Mar. 12, 2018, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,595,986, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to tissue engineering devices and methods employing scaffolds made of absorbable material implanted in the human body and use of such devices and methods in breast procedures, such as breast reconstruction, augmentation, mastopexy and reduction, in various cosmetic and aesthetic procedures involving tissue shaping and adipogenesis and in regenerative and cellular medicine to enhance and supplement organ function in vivo.

Brief Discussion of Related Art

Breast implants are commonly used to replace breast tissue that has been removed due to cancer and are also commonly used for breast augmentation. Most breast implants to replace the corpus mammae after a mastectomy are either saline-filled or silicone gel-filled. Acellular matrices are used mainly for lower pole breast coverage and the shaping of reconstructed breasts. These prior art breast implants have many disadvantages and frequently cause tissue necrosis and capsular contracture. Where the breast surgery is a partial mastectomy (frequently called a lumpectomy) implantable devices have been proposed for placement in the surgical defect. One such device called the BioZorb implant is marketed by Focal Therapeutics, Inc. and includes a rigid bioabsorbable body formed by framework elements producing a non-contiguous external perimeter, such as a coil. The result is that the device does not fill the surgical defect in many instances and, thus, does not achieve a consistently high quality aesthetic appearance which is the outcome desired following lumpectomy. Additionally, the device does not adequately stent the defect in smaller breasted, thin women and in such cases does not promote gradual healing of the lumpectomy space without scar contracture. U.S. Pat. Nos. 9,615,915 and 9,980,809 to Lebovic et al and U.S. Pat. No. 10,413,381 to Hermann et al are representative of these implants which have the disadvantage of not providing the cosmetic/aesthetic desired results but rather are dependent upon the size of the defect.

Autologous fat grafting is an increasingly common procedure in both aesthetic and reconstructive surgery. Adipogenesis from the grafted autologous fat serves many purposes including, but not limited to, shaping and support of soft tissue, such as in the breast and the buttocks (gluteus), and in in vivo tissue engineering.

In breast reconstruction and augmentation surgical procedures, autologous fat grafting is an extremely important step, and enhanced vascularization of the fat is important for improved fat survival. Autologous fat grafting for breast procedures typically involves aspirating fat from the patient with a syringe and injecting the aspirated fat into the soft breast tissue. In the past, attempts to increase vascular density of the injected fat have involved the use of structures to provide volume expansion to assist the fat grafting. Breast procedures and devices employing structures to provide distractive forces are exemplified by U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,066,691, 9,028,526 and 9,974,644 to Khouri and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2008/03006812 to Rigotti et al and are also described in an article entitled “Megavolume Autologous Fat Transfer: Part I. Theory and Principles” authored by Khouri et al, PRS Journal, Volume 133, Number 3, March 2014, pages 550-557. The prior art attempts to improve fat survival have not been successful from a practical standpoint and have had many disadvantages, primarily the need to remove the structures after the surgical procedure.

Many efforts have been made in medicine to replace pharmaceuticals with cellular therapies and to use tissue engineering and regenerative medicine to replace synthetic replacement parts. Science has attempted in the past to engineer replacement parts and organs for the human body. Most efforts have focused on the use of stem cells and decellularized allograft organs. Unfortunately, these attempts and associated therapies have not succeeded in clinical practice, largely due to the problem of developing vascular supply to the large volumes of tissue required for these therapies. Prior art attempts to accomplish in vivo tissue engineering have failed to take advantage of the self-organizing properties of healing tissues. Under the influence of macrophage type-2 inflammation, healing tissues under the influence of proteins, like cytokines and extra cellular matrix proteins, have the ability to organize themselves into biologically authentic order and structure. This activity requires physical support and a blood supply, on a fractal order, and the prior art has failed to provide these requirements.

In the past, attempts have been made to use tissue engineering techniques to combine stem cells and exomes employing scaffolds to overcome the problem of donor tissue scarcity. The attempts have not beneficially affected the function (parenchyma) of the organ due to the inability to integrate fully functioning vascular architectures into the engineered construct. Thus, there has been a need for tissue engineering devices for use in organ generation and/or supplementing the function of organs in the human body.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Absorbable” material means a material that is degraded in the body. It is noted that the terms “absorbable”, “resorbable”, and “degradable” are used in the literature interchangeably with or without the prefix “bio”. Accordingly, absorbable material as used herein means a material broken down and gradually absorbed, excreted or eliminated by the body whether the degradation is due to hydrolysis or metabolic processes. A preferred long term absorbable material for use with the present invention is Poly-4-Hydroxybutyrate, which is commonly referred to as P4HB, and is manufactured by Tepha, Inc., Lexington, Mass. P4HB is typically available in sheets which are referred to as two-dimensional materials and is also available as three-dimensional materials which can be shaped by molding. Absorbable materials useful to make the scaffold of the tissue engineering device according to the present invention are frequently referred to as biodegradable polymers such as the following: polylactic acid, polygllycolic acid and copolymers and mixtures thereof such as poly(L-lactide) (PLLA), poly(D,L-lactide) (PLA), polyglycolic acid or polyglycolide (PGA), poly(L-lactide-co-D,L-lactide) (PLLA/PLA), poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLLA/PGA), poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLA/PGA), poly(glycolide-co-trimethylene carbonate) (PGA/PTMC), poly(D,L-lactide-co-caprolactone) (PLA/PCL) and poly(glycolide-co-caprolactone) (PGA/PCL); polyhydroxyalkanoates, poly(oxa) esters, polyethylene oxide (PEO), polydioxanone (PDS), polypropylene fumarate, poly(ethyl glutamate-co-glutamic acid), poly(tert-butyloxy-carbonylmethyl glutamate), polycaprolactone (PCL), polycaprolactone co-butylacrylate, polyhydroxybutyrate (PH BT) and copolymers of polyhydroxybutyrate, poly(phosp-hazene), poly(phosphate ester), poly(amino acid), polydepsipeptides, maleic anhydride copolymers, polyiminocarbonates, poly[(97.5% dimethyl-trimethylene carbonate)-co-(s.5% trimethylene carbonate)], poly(orthoesters)tyrosine-derived, polyaryates, tyrosine-derived polycarbonates, tyrosine-derived polyiminocarbonates, tyrosine-derived polyphosphonates, polyethylene oxide, polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyalkylene oxides (PAO), hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, polysaccharides such as hyaluronic acid, chitosan and regenerate cellulose, and proteins such as gelatin and collagen, and mixtures and copolymers thereof, among others as well as PEG derivatives or blends of any of the foregoing. Desirably, polymeric materials can be selected for these systems and methods that have good strength retention, such as polydioxanone, silk-based polymers and copolymers, poly4-hydroxybutyrates, and the like.

The present invention overcomes the disadvantages of the prior art by configuring a scaffold made of porous absorbable material to provide physical support for a large volume of tissue, including autologous fat, in a plurality of tissue engineering chambers arranged around a core which can be hollow to accommodate blood vessels. In one embodiment, the tissue engineering device of the present invention employs a scaffold made of a mesh absorbable material formed of a mono-filament polymer knitted mesh which provides a biologic scaffold matrix for cell attachment and protein organization. The matrix is invaded by capillaries, in a granulation type process that transforms the mesh into engineered fascia. The absorbable mesh material structure has a plurality of partially open tissue engineering chambers. The chambers can be formed by folds in one or more sheets of absorbable material and arranged radially around a central core. The chambers can be segmented and/sub-segmented to increase the surface area of the scaffold. The tissue engineering device of the present invention has a shape to be implanted in an anatomical space in fascia of the human body, and the tissue engineering chambers have an aggregate surface area greater than the fascia surface area in the anatomical space. The anatomical space can be a defect created during surgery in superficial fascia, for example in the breast, or in deep fascia adjacent an organ, for example the pancreas, kidneys or liver, when the tissue engineering device is employed for recellularization with functional parenchymal cells. With respect to the pancreas, the tissue engineering device of the present invention can be used to replace insulin-producing islet beta cells destroyed in some types of diabetes. With respect to the liver, the tissue engineering device of the present invention can be used to produce a plentiful source of hepatocytes for regenerating liver tissue and treating metabolic diseases.

In another embodiment of the present invention, the scaffold has an open or hollow core designed for receiving a vascular pedicle having an appropriately sized artery with its vena comitans, fascia and associated fat such that a large volume of engineered tissue is broken down into fractal units of tissue with its own circulation. The radial arrangement of tissue engineering chambers, which can be formed of segments and associated sub-segments, surround the core and break down the large volume of tissue into units approximately 5 cc in volume, which is the volume whereby self-organizing tissues sprout at the terminus of capillary growth. The engineering of large volumes of vascularized living tissue is accomplished with the present invention by a combination of man-made and designed structures and in vivo biologic cells and proteins that organize themselves into healthy tissues.

The tissue engineering devices and methods according to the present invention can be utilized in the body to encourage rapid tissue ingrowth for various reconstructive and cosmetic procedures relating to tissue grafting, particularly, autologous fat in soft tissue areas including, but not limited to, the breast and the buttocks. In the past, autologous fat grafting has involved aspirating fat from a patient with a syringe and injecting the aspirated fat into the soft tissue. As noted above, many prior art procedures and/or devices utilized for fat grafting involve application of distractive forces whereas the tissue engineering devices and methods of the present invention obviate the need for such distractive forces by employing scaffolds having tissue engineering chambers radially arranged around a central core to collect and vascularize tissue.

The tissue engineering devices and methods of the present invention employ a scaffold made of absorbable material. In one embodiment, the present invention employs an open-pore knit pattern of absorbable material to encourage rapid tissue ingrowth through the micro-pores of the scaffold.

The scaffold employed in the tissue engineering device of the present invention permits lipoaspirate fatty tissue injected in the tissue engineering chambers to be mixed with the absorbable material thus holding the micro-globules of liposuctioned fat in place in a three-dimensional, scattered fashion to promote vascularization and prevent pooling of the fat which otherwise could lead to necrosis. Additionally, the tissue engineering chambers can be, prior to insertion in the body, coated with substances known to encourage tissue regeneration and then coated with selected tissue cells such as pancreatic islet cells, hepatic cells, or other cells as well as with stem cells and exosomes genetically altered to contain genes for treatment of patient illnesses. The radially arranged tissue engineering chambers provide good neovascularization with mononuclear inflammatory cells and multi-nucleic giant cells as well as adipogenesis on the absorbable material surfaces, in the absorbable material and between the layers of folded absorbable material.

The number of tissue engineering chambers can vary but are normally somewhere between eight and ten thus dividing the greater overall volume of the space for tissue expansion into smaller, subunit spaces. The joining together of the tissue engineering chambers around a central core adds to the stability of the scaffold while minimizing the required mesh absorbable material.

The scaffold of the tissue engineering device of the present invention has multiple points of connection to form a tension system, and fatty tissue is created which will eventually fill the tissue engineering chambers to create a structure that will bend but not break and return to its original equilibrium shape after distorting influences are removed. Advantageously, the absorbable material is a mesh material composed of a loose-knit monofilament, such as an absorbable polyester like Poly-4 Hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) which is a naturally occurring polymer known to have antibacterial properties and induces M2 phase of inflammation leading to tissue regeneration.

Globules of fat and partial globules broken apart by surgical dissection will fall into the tissue engineering chambers which is desirable since the collagen matrix of the fascia system with its capillaries and arterioles are known to be the location of new adipose tissue creation or adipogenic sites. The large surface area of the scaffold provides structure for neovascularization and three-dimensional locations for distribution of priming substances such as liposuction aspirant. In other priming maneuvers, loose knit, microporous material of the scaffold can be coated with proteins known to promote tissue regeneration and can be covered with other chemical compounds. The scaffold can be colonized with undifferentiated stem cell transplants from healthy cells that grow and produce metabolic compounds.

The tissue engineering device scaffolds of the present invention can be fabricated using a wide range of polymer processing techniques. Methods of fabricating the tissue engineering scaffolds include solvent casting, melt processing, fiber processing/spinning/weaving, or other means of fiber forming extrusion, injection and compression molding, lamination, and solvent leaching/solvent casting. One method of fabricating tissue engineering absorbable material scaffolds involves using an extruder such as a Brabender extruder to make extruded tubes.

Another fabrication method involves preparing a nonwoven absorbable material scaffold from fibers produced from the melt or solution and processed into woven or nonwoven sheets. The properties of the sheets can be tailored by varying, for example, the absorbable material, the fiber dimensions, fiber density, material thickness, fiber orientation and method of fiber processing. The sheets can be further processed and formed into hollow tubes.

Another method involves melt or solvent processing a suitable absorbable material into an appropriate mold and perforating the material using a laser or other means to achieve the desired porosity. Other methods include rolling a compression molded absorbable material sheet into a loop and heat sealing. The tissue engineering devices of the present invention can be seeded with cells prior to implantation or after implantation.

The tissue engineering devices and methods of the present invention can be used for in vivo tissue engineering for organs, including the kidneys, pancreas and liver. The absorbable material is a mesh to allow invasion of fibroblasts to produce collagen which wraps around the monofilament fibers of the mesh. Capillaries grow into the mesh bringing circulation to a large three-dimensional space in the mesh engineered fascia. Lipoaspirate is added to self-organize into a stroma in the spaces between the mesh, the stroma being the supportive tissue of the organ consisting of connective tissues and blood vessels. Another added ingredient is stem cells and exosomes which are seeded on the scaffold when it is implanted. The type of stem cell and/or exosome is chosen depending on the function of the organ being engineered. For example, stem cells from adipose tissue or mesenchymal stem cells are appropriate for breast reconstruction. Glomerular stem cells are used for engineering a kidney. Stem cells associated with pancreatic islet cells are used for the pancreas to treat diabetes. The stem cells develop the parenchyma of the organ.

Accordingly, it can be seen that the tissue engineering device of the present invention presents a building block for in vivo organ development (engineering) or supplementation in that the tissue engineering device provides mesh to engineer a supportive fascia which brings vascularity to a large three-dimensional space and stromal cells that are the supportive filler and functional cells of a specific organ in the parenchyma.

Along with the above noted advantages of the present invention in tissue engineering, the present invention has the additional advantages of being used as, essentially, a bio-hybrid organ for hormone replacement therapy to obviate the need for hormone pellets. That is, instead of implanting slowly dissolving pellets to release a set amount of estrogen or testosterone, the tissue engineering device of the present invention can be used to colonize cells that are a part of human body circulation to release the hormones naturally which is particularly advantageous in patients whose increased age has reduced their hormone levels. Similarly, the tissue engineering device of the present invention can be implanted in individuals with hypothyroidism to be the locus for a colony of transplanted cells that produce thyroid hormone. When the tissue engineering device of the present invention is used as a bio-hybrid organ, endocrine cells are generated with the individual's hypothalamus and pituitary glands controlling the amount of hormone production in accordance with their normal function. A pancreatic bio-hybrid tissue engineering device according to the present invention can also allow an islet cell colony to evade attack by the immune system in individuals with Type 1 diabetes. CRISPR technology can be used to take autologous islet cells and disable their NLRC5 gene, and the islet cells can then be implanted in the tissue engineering device allowing the device to function as a bio-hybrid endocrine organ without being attacked by the immune system. Tissue engineering devices of the present invention implanted in the breast do not present the complications of capsular contracture and infection frequently associated with silicone implants used for breast reconstruction in that adipogenesis is enhanced by capillaries from the superficial fascia growing into the open, porous surfaces of the scaffold which have received the small globules of aspirated fat. Thus, healthy tissue with good vascularity is created to avoid infection. When the tissue engineering device of the present invention is implanted following lumpectomy, the spherical-type shape fills the defect and promotes gradual healing of the lumpectomy space without scar contracture while the scaffold acts as a stent preventing wound contracture and scarring and promoting M2 regenerative healing of the lumpectomy defect. The round surface of the spherical-like scaffold minimizes damage to delicate tissue, prevents extrusion and, more completely, approximates the lumpectomy defect than prior art devices.

Other aspects and advantages of the tissue engineering devices and tissue engineering methods of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of the invention taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein like parts in each of the several figures are identified by the same reference characters.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the in vivo tissue engineering device of the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a top view of the tissue engineering device of FIG. 1 .

FIG. 3 is a broken perspective view illustrating a method of fabrication of the tissue engineering device of the present invention.

FIG. 4 is a broken perspective view illustrating implant of a tissue engineering device of the present invention.

FIG. 5 is a broken perspective view illustrating implant of a tissue engineering device of the present invention in the breast after mastectomy.

FIGS. 6 and 7 are top perspective and bottom plan views, respectively, of a tissue engineering device of the present invention modified to include a layer of absorbable material on a disc-like distal end surface and detachable tubing on a disc-like proximal end surface.

FIG. 8 is a perspective view of a tissue engineering device of the present invention with short term absorbable material in the tissue engineering chambers.

FIGS. 9 and 10 are broken perspective views of a tissue engineering device of the present invention used for supplementing kidney function.

FIGS. 11 and 12 are side views of tissue engineering devices of the present invention having varying profiles.

FIG. 13 is a side view of a tissue engineering device of the present invention having a tubular configuration.

FIG. 14 is a side view of a tissue engineering device of the present invention having a spherical-like configuration for implant after a lumpectomy.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

An in vivo tissue engineering device 20 according to the present invention is shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 and includes a scaffold 22 made of one or more sheets of mesh absorbable material which is, by nature, porous. The scaffold has a wide base or proximal portion 24, a narrower apex or distal portion 26 and a tapering, sidewall 28 extending between the base portion and the apex portion. The sidewall 28 is formed by a plurality of partially open, tissue engineering chambers 30 such that the sidewall has a rugose configuration formed by pleats or folds of the one or more sheets of absorbable material. The scaffold has a hollow inner region 29 which can be formed by a central core 32 extending between the base portion and the apex portion. If required by size, volume and stability, a plurality of L-shaped tubular struts 34 made of absorbable material can be radially arranged on the scaffold with legs extending through the core and bent 90° to terminate adjacent the perimeter of the base portion. As shown, the scaffold has a truncated geometrical shape designed to be placed in the body in a position where the base portion is adjacent bodily tissue to define a fixation or anchoring location where the scaffold is supported and the apex portion is spaced from the fixation location. When the tissue engineering device is used for breast procedures, such as breast reconstruction or augmentation (e.g. after mastectomy, implant replacement, mastopexy and other breast procedures), the scaffold can have a truncated shape similar to a brassiere cup such that the shape of the scaffold can be considered to be a frustoconical-like or pyramidal-like three-dimensional structure.

The scaffold can be made of one or more pleated sheets of mesh absorbable material or can be molded of porous absorbable material to be unitary in nature as described above. A segment 36 of the absorbable material forming the side wall 28 is shown in FIG. 3 . The pleated sheets of absorbable material are folded as shown at the bottom 38 to form the tissue engineering chambers 30, each of which is defined by opposing panels 39 extending from the bottom to form interior walls. Adjacent sheets or panels of absorbable material can be fixed or connected as shown at 40 to form sub-segment tissue engineering chambers 30′ and 30″. If the scaffold is not molded or otherwise unitarily formed, the connection shown at 40 can be achieved by welding to attach all points of contact in the structure. The connection of adjacent tissue engineering chambers creates a contiguous outer surface for the scaffold and stabilizes the compression and tensioning forces exerted on the scaffold by bodily tissue to achieve a floating equilibrium or tensegrity via the non-rigid tissue engineering chambers. Once fat has grown into the tissue engineering chambers, the fat will cooperate with the structure of the scaffold to create biotensegrity. The struts 34 are used if extra support is required due to the weight of tissue in the scaffold, and preferably the struts should terminate below the end surface of the distal portion and not extend beyond the perimeter of the disc surface of the proximal portion. Additional tissue engineering chambers 30V are formed in the spaces between panels 39 of adjacent tissue engineering chambers. Accordingly, the aggregate surface area of the mesh absorbable material provided by the tissue engineering chambers will be substantially greater than the fascia surface area in the anatomical space in which the tissue engineering device is implanted as can be seen in FIGS. 4 and 5 . As noted above, the tissue engineering chambers 30 are formed or divided into sub-segments 30′ and 30″, and the sub-segments increase the stability of shape of the scaffold, due to tensegrity, and support the over-all volume of adipose tissue engineering required to perform breast reconstruction. The tissue engineering chambers each, desirably, generates an average of 5 cc of adipogenesis such that a scaffold having fifty tissue engineering chambers allows the transplant of 250 cc with no fat necrosis. In the scaffold employed in the tissue engineering device embodiment of FIG. 1 , the chambers 30 would hold 7 ccs of fat, the chambers/sub-segments 30′ would hold 5 ccs of fat and the chambers/sub-segments 30″ would hold 3 ccs of fat. The number of tissue engineering chambers/sub-segments depends on the stability provided by the L-shaped struts and the amount of absorbable material desired. The tissue engineering chambers/sub-segments are each arranged in a ring such that the scaffold is formed of a plurality of rings of tissue engineering chambers to form various geometric configurations for the scaffold. Looking at FIG. 2 , tissue engineering chambers 30 form an outer ring, tissue engineering chambers 30′ form an intermediate ring and tissue engineering chambers 30″ form an inner ring. For example, the plurality of rings can be arranged in tiers having decreasing diameters such that the sidewall 28 is tapered and the scaffold has a frustoconical-like configuration. Where the plurality of rings has substantially the same diameter, the scaffold will have a tubular/cylindrical configuration as shown in FIG. 13 . Hemispherical-like and spherical-like configurations can be achieved by varying the diameter of the rings. A spherical-like configuration can also be achieved by securing two hemispherical-like scaffolds together as shown in FIG. 14 . The proximal portion 24 of the scaffold has a disc-like end surface 42 and the distal portion 26 of the scaffold has a disc-like end surface 44, both end surfaces being made of absorbable material. In the truncated geometrical shape shown in FIG. 1 , the end surfaces 42 and 44 are disposed at the base and apex, respectively, of the scaffold and have openings 46 and 48 therein, respectively, aligned with hollow central core 32.

A tissue engineering method according to the present invention will be described in connection with a breast procedure after mastectomy and with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5 . It is important that the anatomical space in fascia, i.e. the mastectomy defect, be stented and held open to prevent scar contracture of the wound which is prohibitive to fat regeneration, i.e. adipogenesis. In order for adipogenesis to take place, a low tissue tension is required, and a nearby capillary blood supply is needed. The tissue engineering method comprises the steps of implanting scaffold 22 in the anatomical space in the fascia 50 created during the mastectomy, anchoring the proximal portion of the scaffold in the space 50 with the proximal end disc-like surface abutting the fascia, inserting autologous tissue, normally autologous liposuctioned fat, in the tissue engineering chambers 30, pulling a vascular flap pedicle 52 along with the blood vessels (perforator 54 shown in FIG. 4 ) into the hollow inner region 29 of the scaffold formed by the hollow core 32 and positioning the vascular flap pedicle in the distal portion of the scaffold to position the blood vessels 54 along the hollow inner region to provide capillary blood supply to the autologous tissue in the tissue engineering chambers 30. For breast procedures, the vascular flap pedicle is dissected from a small pectoral muscle island flap having a perforator coming from the thoracoacromial artery, and the perforator/vascular flap pedicle is accessed by instruments passed through the opening 48 in the disc-like end surface 44 of the distal portion 26. A forceps 56 is shown grasping a suture 58 tied around the vascular flap pedicle. Accordingly, blood vessels can be pulled by the suture through the central hollow core from the base up through the apex at the time of implant of the scaffold and the suture can be tied to the apex of the scaffold to anchor the vascular flap pedicle in place before the scaffold is sutured to surrounding fascia in the anatomical space 50 to prevent rotation or displacement of the scaffold in the anatomical space. The autologous tissue inserting step can be performed prior to implant of the scaffold, after implanting of the scaffold or prior to and after implant of the scaffold. The tissue engineering method can be enhanced by creating negative pressure in the scaffold and by filling the tissue engineering chambers with loose felt cellulose matrix prior to inserting fat.

FIG. 5 shows a scaffold 22 according to the present invention implanted in a space 50 after mastectomy within a breast with the scaffold having fewer tissue engineering chambers 30 than the scaffold shown in FIGS. 1 and 4 and illustrates cannulas 62 for injecting microglobules of the fat, approximately 1 to 1.5 mm in diameter, between the skin envelope and the scaffold 22, under the scaffold and near the chest wall and into the tissue engineering chambers 30 and 30′. Granulation tissue, a collagen and extra cellular protein matrix created by fibroblasts mixed with rich capillary growth emanating from the pectoral muscle vascular flap/perforator 52 in the hollow core 32 of the scaffold, is generated in the center of the scaffold to create centrally located supportive vascular tissue which is mimicked by tissue growing in from the peripheral surfaces and from the surrounding superficial fascia remnants from the mastectomy dissection. Accordingly, the surfaces of the mesh absorbable material, which is segmented to form the tissue engineering chambers, have vascular supported tissue ingrowth from the outside in and from the inside out producing a large vascularized absorbable mesh scaffold that can sustain adipogenesis. The termination of the struts 34 to not extend beyond the perimeter of the base of the scaffold is shown at 64.

FIGS. 6, 7 and 8 show modifications of the tissue engineering device 20 shown in FIG. 1 . FIG. 6 shows a layer of cellulose matrix 66, such as methyl cellulose, disposed on the distal end disc-like surface 44 having a thickness of approximately 1 cm. Fat is injected in the layer, and the layer acts as a separation of the areolar dermis from the scaffold to facilitate lifting the skin envelope and nipple areolar dermis away from the scaffold during subsequent fat grafting, if required. FIG. 7 shows tubing 68 with holes therein detachably carried on the proximal portion disc-like end surface 42 communicating with a small suction pump 70 to create negative pressure in the scaffold and to drain excess fluid. The tubing 68 is also shown in FIG. 6 .

FIG. 8 shows the application of a loose felt of cellulose matrix 72, such as methyl cellulose, to the mesh absorbable material forming the tissue engineering chambers 30, 30′ and 30″ of the scaffold. The loose felt greatly increases the surface area of the mesh absorbent material but will dissolve much faster since the absorbable material used to fabricate the scaffold is considered to be a long term absorbable material relative to the cellulose matrix which is considered to be a short term absorbable material. The cellulose fibers of the cellulose matrix will additionally hold fat globules in place and also act as an additional surface for capillary ingrowth.

A modification of the tissue engineering device of FIG. 1 to provide a kidney-type function is shown in FIGS. 9 and 10 with parts labeled to explain their function. The scaffold 22 has essentially the same structure as the scaffold shown in FIG. 5 with the addition of microtubules in semipermeable membranes disposed in the chambers 30 dividing the chambers in half. In FIG. 9 , a tube communicates with the hollow central core at the opening 48 in the disc-like end surface of the distal portion of the scaffold for exit of urea to permit drainage to the bladder. In FIG. 10 , urea exits from the proximal portion of the scaffold.

Embodiments of scaffolds 22 for use in the tissue engineering device of the present invention are shown in FIGS. 11 and 12 where the tissue engineering chambers 30 are not formed with sub-segments. The interior hollow core 32 and the L-struts 34 are covered by rugose draping sheets of mesh absorbable material. The embodiment shown in FIG. 11 has a base wider than its height and would be covered with liposuctioned fat whereas the embodiment shown in FIG. 12 has a height greater than the width of its base and would be implanted behind the breast gland (corpus mammae) to effect increased projection of the breast. These embodiments can be used in instances of breast reduction and mastopexy after implantation. The patient's cells, including fibroblast producing collagen and capillaries grow into the scaffold and create an engineered fascia-like tissue which persists after the mesh fibers are absorbed.

The embodiment of the scaffold 22 shown in FIG. 13 is tubular and essentially cylindrical and would be employed in tissue engineering devices used with filter-type organs. The hollow central core 32 runs the length of the cylindrical scaffold. When used for the kidneys, two-dimensional circular discs, which are the semipermeable membranes containing the microtubule collecting ducts, are spread out along the longitudinal axis of the scaffold at regular intervals. Flanked on either side of each semipermeable membrane are the absorbable material chambers/segments 30 where the engineered adipose tissue grows. The adipose tissue gets blood supply by the vascular flap pedicle (in the case of use with the kidneys, the inferior epigastic artery) which is dissected out of the muscle in the lower abdomen, then pulled through the central core. The drainage tube shown in FIGS. 9 and 10 collects urine and runs from the distal to proximal ends, where it is then tunneled to the bladder like a ureter.

A spherical-type scaffold 22 is illustrated in FIG. 14 and would be of a size smaller than scaffolds used for total breast reconstruction following mastectomy. The embodiment of FIG. 14 is designed for use to reconstruct partial mastectomies, otherwise known as lumpectomies. The diameter of the spherical-type scaffold would normally be between 2.5 cm and 5 cm, and the central hollow core 32 would normally have a diameter of approximately 1 cm and facilitates tissue ingrowth and expedites absorption. The spherical-type scaffold for use after a lumpectomy would not require any fat grafting or use of vascular perforator pedicles due to the large ratio of surface area to volume which insures rapid ingrowth of tissue. The spherical-type scaffold will hold apart remaining tissue that surrounds a lumpectomy defect and prevent collapse and scarring. The negative pressure of the anatomical lumpectomy space induces tissue ingrowth and adipogenesis in the same manner as the tissue engineering chambers previously described without the need for fat grafting. A fractal version of the spherical-type scaffold can be on the order of 1 to 1.5 mm to permit injection as filler into existing superficial fascia and would be replaced by tissue and fat from adipogenesis without the need for liposuction and fat grafting. In order to achieve a desired aesthetic outcome following lumpectomy, the small spherical-type scaffold is implanted and fills the defect to promote gradual healing of the lumpectomy space without scar contracture. The spherical-type scaffold acts as a stent against wound contracture and scarring and promotes M2 regenerative healing of the lumpectomy defect. The spherical-type scaffold includes a plurality of tissue engineering chambers connected with one another as previously described to present a contiguous periphery to fill the defect. Titanium micro-clips can be mounted to the surface of the spherical-type scaffold to define its location for post-lumpectomy breast procedures and mammograms. Due to the small size of the spherical-type scaffold, which will have a diameter between 2.5 and 5 cm, the scaffold will typically have only 12 segments with only 24 subsegments. Each subsegment will have an approximately 5 cc volume.

The tissue engineering device of the present invention can be implanted in various locations of the body particularly in anatomical spaces in the fascia, both in the superficial fascia and the deep fascia. The scaffold of the tissue engineering device can have any shape or size dependent upon the anatomical space in fascia and the functional requirements of the scaffold (for example, for breast reconstruction after mastectomy, for cosmetic or aesthetic purposes relating to the breast or other soft tissue, such as the buttocks, or for various functional organs of the body). Accordingly, the scaffold would be smaller in size and essentially spherical in shape for lumpectomies. The scaffold can be placed in a space in the body created by surgical dissection to divide the space into segments and sub-segments. The surfaces of the scaffold invite tissue ingrowth consisting of fibroblasts making collagen fibers which surround the polymer filaments of the absorbable material and capillary vascular ingrowth. The spaces between the pleats/chambers leave room for new adipose tissue creation, through a process mediated by mechanical signals, due to low tissue tension created by holding the surgical dissection apart with the scaffold. This stimulates stromal cells in the fascia to secrete protein “cytokines” such as CXCL12 which attracts stem cells from circulation to migrate and congregate in the space occupied by the tissue engineering device. As a result, a healthy, well vascularized engineered tissue results in the location of implantation of the tissue engineering device. The absorbable material scaffold can be covered with various chemical compounds, cells, and proteins prior to implantation, depending on various regenerative therapeutic goals. The tissue engineering device thus becomes an in vivo bioreactor acting as a repository for genetically repaired, autologous patient cells, or allograft donor cells, that have been genetically altered or repaired, e.g. for example, with CRISPR technology. Once cells have been genetically modified in vitro, the cells are transplanted into the tissue engineering device bioreactor environment, where the cells find an incubator environment for growth and are exposed to a rich circulation which can send the products of the repaired cell line into the patient's blood stream. One example is the treatment of diabetes. Type I diabetics have an inadequate number of functioning pancreatic islet cells, which make insulin. The beta cells of the pancreatic islets secrete insulin and play a significant role in diabetes. Repaired autologous beta cells or allograft beta cells can be transplanted into the tissue engineering device for the treatment of diabetes. The tissue engineering device can be placed anywhere within the fascia system of the body, but most conveniently at locations such as the lower lateral abdominal region, posterior hip region above the buttocks, or the upper chest, just below the clavicle. These locations allow implantation via outpatient minor surgical procedures, using local anesthesia and mild sedation.

The porosity of the porous absorbable material from which the scaffold is made will be determined based on its area of use in the body. Porosity is important to the reaction of the tissue to the scaffold. Macroporous mesh absorbable materials that have large pores facilitate entry of microphages, fibroblast and collagen fibers that constitute new connective tissue. Microporous mesh absorbable materials, with pores less than 10 micrometers, have shown a higher rejection rate due to scar tissue rapidly bridging the small pores. Though there is no formal classification system for pore size, in most instances the scaffold will be made of a macroporous mesh absorbable material with pores greater than 10 micrometers.

Inasmuch as the present invention is subject to many variations, modifications and changes in detail, it is intended that all subject matter discussed above or shown in the accompanying drawings be interpreted as illustrative only and not be taken in a limiting sense. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of fabricating an implantable prosthesis, the method comprising acts of: (a) providing a plurality of sheets of biocompatible material; (b) folding one of the plurality of sheets along a first fold to form a scaffold segment including at least two scaffold panels; (c) repeating act (b) for each of the plurality of sheets to form a plurality of scaffold segments; and (d) arranging the plurality of scaffold segments circumferentially about a longitudinal axis to form an implantable scaffold having a three-dimensional configuration with the scaffold panels forming a plurality of chambers facing outwardly and extending in an outward radial direction away from the longitudinal axis.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein act (d) includes forming a hollow core about the longitudinal axis, the plurality of scaffold segments being arranged about and extending outwardly in a direction away from the hollow core.
 3. The method according to claim 2, further comprising an act (e) of attaching a first layer of biocompatible material to a proximal end of the scaffold.
 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the first layer includes an opening, act (d) includes forming an opening at a proximal end of the hollow core, and act (e) includes aligning the opening in the first layer with the opening at the proximal end of the hollow core.
 5. The method according to claim 3, further comprising an act (f) of attaching a second layer of biocompatible material to a distal end of the scaffold which is spaced from the proximal end of the scaffold.
 6. The method according to claim 5, wherein the second layer includes an opening, act (d) includes forming an opening at a distal end of the hollow core, and and act (f) includes aligning the opening in the second layer with the opening at the distal end of the hollow core.
 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein act (d) includes attaching adjacent scaffold segments to each other to form the plurality of chambers.
 8. The method according to claim 7, wherein act (d) includes connecting a side of a first chamber to a side of a second chamber.
 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein act (d) includes connecting a top of the first chamber to a bottom of a third chamber.
 10. The method according to claim 7, wherein act (d) includes connecting adjacent scaffold segments to each other at first and second connections located between a proximal end of the scaffold and a distal end of the scaffold and spaced apart from each other in an axial direction parallel to the longitudinal axis.
 11. The method according to claim 1, wherein act (d) includes forming a plurality of first chambers having a first shape and a plurality of second chambers having a second shape which is different from the first shape.
 12. The method according to claim 11, wherein act (d) includes forming each of the plurality of first chambers with an oval shape and each of the plurality of second chambers with a non-oval shape.
 13. The method according to claim 12, wherein act (d) includes forming each of the plurality of second chambers with a diamond-like shape.
 14. The method according to claim 1, wherein act (d) includes forming a plurality of first chambers having a first size and a plurality of second chambers having a second size which is different from the first size.
 15. The method according to claim 14, wherein act (d) includes forming each of the plurality of chambers with a size which increases in the outward radial direction.
 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein act (d) includes forming each of the plurality of chambers with a width which increases in the outward radial direction.
 17. The method according to claim 1, wherein the implantable prosthesis is configured to augment and/or reconstruct an anatomical shape of a human breast. 